Few family-law disputes in the Philippines are as emotionally charged and legally complex as the case of a child who has been registered under the name of a man who is not the biological father, while another man later claims to be the true father. The problem immediately raises several overlapping issues:

who is the child’s legal father,
whether biology alone is enough,
whether the child may or must carry the biological father’s surname,
whether the birth record can be corrected,
whether the husband, the acknowledging man, or the biological father has rights,
and whether any court action is necessary.

In Philippine law, these questions are not answered by DNA alone. The controlling framework comes from the Family Code, the Civil Code (in residual and interpretive respects), the Rules of Court, the law and regulations on civil registry correction, the jurisprudence on filiation and legitimacy, and the special rules on the use of surnames by legitimate and illegitimate children.

The subject becomes especially difficult because different factual situations are often lumped together under one phrase. A child may be “registered under another man” in several very different ways:

the child was born to a married woman, and the husband was entered as father by operation of the presumption of legitimacy;
the child was born to an unmarried woman, but another man signed the birth certificate as father;
a man voluntarily acknowledged the child even though he was not the biological father;
the birth record incorrectly states the father due to mistake, fraud, or misrepresentation;
the biological father wants the child to bear his surname, but the child is already using someone else’s;
the child seeks to know, prove, or change filiation after years have passed.

The law treats these situations differently. The outcome depends not only on biology, but on legitimacy, acknowledgment, civil registry entries, evidence of filiation, the child’s status, and the kind of action filed.

This article explains the topic comprehensively in Philippine context.

I. The governing principle: paternity in Philippine law is a matter of filiation, not biology alone

Philippine law distinguishes between biological fatherhood and legal filiation.

A man may be the biological father, but unless filiation is legally established in a manner recognized by law, he may not automatically acquire the legal rights of a father under the Family Code. Conversely, a man may appear in the birth certificate or may be presumed by law to be the father, and until that status is successfully challenged, he may be treated as the child’s legal father even if later doubts arise about biology.

This is why the first legal question is not simply “Who sired the child?” but:

What is the child’s legal filiation under Philippine law?

That issue controls surname, support, succession, authority to sue, and the form of the proper remedy.

II. Foundational concepts: legitimacy, illegitimacy, and filiation

A. Legitimate children

A child conceived or born during the valid marriage of the parents is generally presumed legitimate. Legitimacy is one of the strongest presumptions in family law. A legitimate child ordinarily bears the father’s surname and is entitled to the rights attached to legitimate filiation.

When the mother is married, this presumption becomes central. Even if another man claims to be the biological father, the law does not casually displace the husband.

B. Illegitimate children

A child born outside a valid marriage is generally illegitimate, unless some other provision of law applies. An illegitimate child has rights recognized by law, including support and successional rights, but the legal rules on surname, acknowledgment, and proof of filiation differ from those governing legitimate children.

C. Filiation

Filiation is the legal relationship between parent and child. It may be established by:

record of birth appearing in the civil register,
admission of filiation in a public document or private handwritten instrument signed by the parent,
open and continuous possession of the status of a child,
or other evidence allowed by law and jurisprudence, depending on the nature of the action.

Filiation is not merely sentimental. It produces legal consequences in support, inheritance, use of surname, and status.

III. The first major distinction: was the mother married when the child was conceived or born?

This is often the decisive threshold issue.

1. If the mother was married

If the child was conceived or born during the mother’s valid marriage, the law generally presumes that the husband is the father. This presumption is among the strongest in law because it protects family stability, legitimacy, and the status of the child.

In such a case, a biological father outside the marriage does not simply step in and assert paternity as though no marriage existed. The child is not legally treated as his merely because of biology. The husband’s paternity must first be overcome in the manner allowed by law.

2. If the mother was not married

If the mother was unmarried, the child is ordinarily illegitimate unless recognized under some other legal framework. In that situation, the issue becomes whether the biological father has validly acknowledged the child, whether another man falsely acknowledged the child, and whether the civil registry entry reflects true filiation.

IV. The presumption that the husband is the father

When a married woman gives birth, the law presumes the child is her husband’s. This presumption is not lightly defeated.

A. Why this presumption matters

If the child is presumed legitimate, then:

the husband is treated as the legal father unless the presumption is successfully impugned;
the child ordinarily bears the husband’s surname;
another man claiming biological paternity has no automatic right to have the child carry his surname;
a civil registry correction alone is usually not enough if the requested change effectively attacks legitimacy.

B. Who may challenge legitimacy

Philippine family law is restrictive on who may impugn the legitimacy of a child. The action to impugn legitimacy is traditionally treated as a specific and personal remedy, generally belonging in the first instance to the husband and, in some instances under the law, his heirs in defined situations.

This is crucial: the biological father is not ordinarily given a free-standing right to attack the legitimacy of a child born to a married woman merely because he claims to be the actual father.

The law protects the child’s status from collateral or opportunistic attacks.

C. Time limitations

Actions impugning legitimacy are also subject to strict prescriptive periods under the Family Code. If the proper party fails to challenge legitimacy within the period fixed by law, the presumption may become effectively conclusive for practical purposes.

That means time matters enormously. A delayed claim of biological fatherhood may face serious legal obstacles even if factually true.

V. The unmarried mother scenario: when another man is on the birth certificate

A different framework applies if the mother was unmarried and another man is registered as father.

Here the key questions become:

Did the other man validly acknowledge the child?
Was the entry made with or without lawful basis?
Was there fraud, mistake, or simulation?
Can the biological father establish filiation?
What is the best interest of the child, especially regarding surname and status?

If the wrong man appears as father in the birth certificate, the law does not automatically erase the entry based on allegation alone. The legal remedy depends on whether the change sought is merely clerical or involves a substantial change in status or filiation.

VI. A birth certificate entry is important, but not always conclusive

The child’s birth certificate is a primary document of filiation, but its evidentiary force depends on the circumstances of its execution.

A. When it supports filiation

If the father personally signed the birth certificate, or the entry was made with valid acknowledgment recognized by law, the birth record can be strong evidence of filiation.

B. When it is defective or questionable

If the father’s name was inserted:

without his signature,
without a valid public document,
without a private handwritten instrument signed by him,
through clerical mistake,
or through fraud or false representation,

then the evidentiary value of the entry may be attacked.

However, attacking the entry is not always a simple administrative correction. Where the requested correction would change the child’s filiation or civil status, judicial proceedings are ordinarily required.

VII. The biological father’s rights: what rights exist and when

The phrase “paternity rights” can mean many things. In Philippine law, a biological father may seek one or more of the following, but only if the legal basis exists:

recognition of filiation,
the right for the child to use his surname, where allowed by law,
visitation or parental access, depending on custody realities and court orders,
the right or obligation to give support,
participation in decisions affecting the child,
successional consequences,
and the correction of the child’s birth record.

But none of these rights exists in the same way in every case.

A. Biology alone does not automatically create full legal father’s rights

If legal filiation is not established, the biological father may have no enforceable paternal status. The law requires recognized modes of proof.

B. Once filiation is established, support becomes central

A biological father whose paternity is legally established may be compelled to support the child, and the child may claim rights arising from that status.

C. Custody is different from filiation

Even when paternity is established, custody rules do not automatically favor the father. Especially for young children, the mother may still retain custody unless compelling reasons justify otherwise. Paternity and custody are related but distinct.

VIII. Can the biological father force the child to use his surname?

Not always.

This is one of the most misunderstood points in Philippine law.

A. If the child is legitimate under the law

If the child is legitimate and the legal father is the husband, the biological father generally cannot insist that the child carry his surname. The child’s lawful surname follows legitimate filiation, not extramarital biology.

B. If the child is illegitimate and the biological father validly acknowledges the child

An illegitimate child may use the surname of the father if the conditions of law are met. The right is tied to valid recognition or admission of paternity in the manner required by law and implementing rules.

This does not mean every alleged father can unilaterally impose his surname. Legal acknowledgment and proper civil registry processes matter.

C. If another man has already been entered as father

If the child is already registered under another man’s surname, the biological father usually cannot simply ask the civil registrar to substitute names. If the change would alter filiation, legitimacy, or paternal identity, a judicial action is usually necessary.

IX. Surname rules for illegitimate children

Philippine law evolved on the matter of surnames of illegitimate children.

A. General rule in earlier framework

Traditionally, illegitimate children principally used the surname of the mother, unless lawful acknowledgment by the father justified use of the father’s surname under the applicable legal framework.

B. Later statutory and administrative developments

The law later allowed illegitimate children, under specified conditions, to use the surname of the father if the father expressly recognized the child in the forms required by law.

This is often discussed in relation to the rule allowing an illegitimate child to use the father’s surname where there is an admission of paternity made in a record of birth, in a public document, or in a private handwritten instrument signed by the father.

C. The surname is linked to valid recognition

The father’s surname cannot be adopted merely because the mother says he is the father or because he privately admits it orally. The law looks for recognized forms of proof.

X. When another man acknowledged the child: legal consequences

Suppose a child was born to an unmarried woman, but another man signed the birth certificate as father even though he was not the biological father.

Several possibilities arise.

1. The acknowledgment was voluntary and regular on its face

If the man knowingly and voluntarily acknowledged the child in a legally sufficient manner, the birth record may create strong evidence of filiation in his favor. Undoing that status may require a substantial judicial action, especially if the goal is to establish that he is not in fact the father and to substitute another man.

2. The acknowledgment was procured by fraud or mistake

If the man’s acknowledgment was obtained through fraud, deception, or mistake, he may seek judicial relief. But again, this is not usually a simple clerical correction because the matter touches paternity and status.

3. The entry was inserted without lawful acknowledgment

If the alleged father never signed and never executed any valid acknowledgment, his name may have been improperly entered. In that case, the entry may be vulnerable, though the appropriate procedure still depends on the exact defect and the relief sought.

XI. The husband’s rights when another man claims biological fatherhood

Where the mother is married and another man claims paternity, the husband’s rights are legally significant.

A. He is protected by the presumption of legitimacy

The husband need not initially prove biology. The law presumes his paternity.

B. He has standing in actions affecting legitimacy

The law specifically gives the husband the primary role in impugning legitimacy. That structure protects marital and filial stability.

C. His name in the birth record is not casually removable

If he is the registered father because of legitimacy, replacing his name with that of another man is a direct assault on the child’s status and usually cannot be done through mere administrative correction.

XII. The child’s rights are paramount

Although adults often frame the dispute as a contest between men, legally the most important interests are those of the child.

The child has interests in:

stable civil status,
legitimacy or recognized filiation where applicable,
support,
inheritance,
identity,
emotional and psychological welfare,
privacy,
and freedom from manipulative litigation.

Philippine courts are generally cautious in actions that may stigmatize or unsettle the child’s status without compelling legal basis.

This is why the law imposes procedural safeguards before changing paternity entries or surnames.

XIII. Correction of entries in the birth certificate: administrative vs judicial routes

The remedy depends on the nature of the requested correction.

A. Clerical or typographical errors

Minor clerical or typographical errors may in proper cases be corrected administratively under the civil registry correction framework.

B. Substantial changes

But changes involving:

the identity of the father,
legitimacy or illegitimacy,
citizenship if tied to filiation,
surname based on paternity,
or status itself

are substantial, not merely clerical.

These generally require judicial proceedings because they affect civil status and the rights of third persons.

C. Why this distinction matters

A request to remove one man’s name as father and replace it with another’s is almost always substantial. Even if the claimant calls it a “correction,” the law looks at the effect, not the label.

XIV. Rule 108 and judicial correction of civil registry entries

When the issue concerns a substantial correction in the civil register, the usual legal framework points to a judicial petition for cancellation or correction of entries.

A. Nature of the action

A petition to correct or cancel entries in the civil registry is not a casual administrative request. If the change affects filiation, legitimacy, or parental identity, the case must be handled with due process and notice to all interested parties.

B. Adversarial character when status is affected

Although some civil registry proceedings may begin as special proceedings, they become effectively adversarial when substantial rights are in issue. Interested parties such as the mother, the registered father, the alleged biological father, and even the child through proper representation may need to be heard.

C. No shortcut for paternity disputes

Rule-based correction of the register does not eliminate the need to prove paternity or disprove existing filiation through competent evidence.

XV. Proof of paternity: what evidence is recognized

Paternity may be proved through modes recognized by the Family Code and case law.

A. Primary documentary modes

For illegitimate filiation, the law recognizes proof such as:

the record of birth in the civil register signed by the father,
an admission in a public document,
a private handwritten instrument signed by the father.

These are especially important because they create formal links between the man and the child.

B. Open and continuous possession of status

Filiation may also be shown by open and continuous possession of the status of a child. This refers to a pattern of treatment by the father and community recognition consistent with a parent-child relationship.

Examples may include:

the father consistently introducing the child as his own,
providing sustained support,
permitting use of his surname,
including the child in family life,
and other public acts consistent with acknowledged parenthood.

This is fact-sensitive and heavily litigated.

C. Other evidence

In the absence of the primary documents, other means allowed by the Rules of Court and special laws may be considered, especially where direct evidence is unavailable. Courts have, in appropriate cases, considered scientific evidence such as DNA, though always within procedural and evidentiary rules.

XVI. DNA evidence: powerful, but not self-executing

DNA testing can be highly probative in paternity disputes, but it does not by itself rewrite the birth certificate or automatically alter legal filiation without proper proceedings.

A. Usefulness of DNA

DNA may strongly support or refute biological paternity.

B. Limits of DNA

DNA does not erase legal presumptions by itself. For example:

it does not automatically invalidate legitimacy,
it does not by itself amend the civil registry,
and it does not eliminate the need for proper standing, proper cause of action, and proper procedure.

C. Procedural importance

Courts must still determine:

who may demand DNA testing,
for what purpose,
in what kind of action,
and with what effect on existing civil status.

DNA is evidence, not a magic decree.

XVII. Can the biological father file an action to establish paternity if another man is listed?

Yes, in some situations, but the viability of the action depends on the child’s legal status.

A. If the child is illegitimate and the registered father’s entry is defective or false

The biological father may have a clearer route to establish filiation, though he must still confront the civil registry entry and prove his own paternity in the manner recognized by law.

B. If the child is presumed legitimate because the mother was married

The biological father faces serious legal barriers. He generally cannot simply file a paternity case that collaterally destroys the child’s legitimacy. The law protects the child’s status and restricts who may impugn it.

C. The child’s own action is different

The child may, in proper cases and within the rules on filiation, bring an action to establish or protect filiation. The child’s position is often legally stronger than that of a third-party claimant because filiation rights exist primarily for the benefit of the child.

XVIII. Can the mother alone change the father’s name on the birth certificate?

Generally, no, not if the change is substantial.

The mother cannot usually unilaterally delete the registered father and insert another man’s name through a simple request if the issue involves paternity or status. The matter ordinarily requires judicial action and notice to affected parties.

A mother’s declaration is important evidence, but it is not by itself legally conclusive on the identity of the father where the law requires formal proof.

XIX. Can the man who was wrongly listed as father remove his name?

Possibly, but not through mere informality.

If a man was falsely, mistakenly, or fraudulently recorded as father, he may seek judicial relief. The precise action depends on the facts:

correction or cancellation of the civil registry entry,
challenge to an acknowledgment procured through fraud,
defense against support claims,
or related civil actions.

But if he voluntarily and knowingly acknowledged the child, the legal consequences become much more difficult to undo. Courts may examine the nature of the acknowledgment, the equities of the case, and the child’s interests.

XX. Support obligations while paternity is disputed

A recurring practical issue is support.

A. The registered father may be sued for support

If a man is recorded as father or has legally acknowledged the child, he may face support claims unless and until that status is judicially displaced.

B. The biological father may also face claims if filiation is established

Once biological paternity is legally established in a recognized action, support obligations may arise.

C. Competing or transitional claims

During dispute, the case can become procedurally difficult. The law aims to prevent the child from being left unsupported while adults litigate technical status questions.

XXI. Succession and inheritance implications

Filiation determines inheritance rights.

A. If the child is the legal child of the registered father

The child may acquire successional rights against that father, subject to the legal nature of the filiation.

B. If the biological father establishes legal filiation

The child may acquire successional rights against the biological father according to the child’s legal status under succession law.

C. The registered father’s estate may challenge or defend status

In estate settings, paternity disputes become especially intense because surname and filiation affect compulsory heirship and hereditary shares.

This is why courts are careful before permitting late or collateral attacks on filiation.

XXII. The surname issue is not only symbolic

In Philippine law, surname has legal and practical consequences:

school records,
passports,
medical records,
inheritance claims,
insurance,
parental authority questions,
travel consent,
and social identity.

That is why courts and civil registrars do not treat surname substitution lightly. A change of surname based on paternity can imply a change in filiation itself.

XXIII. If the child has long used another man’s surname

Long use of a surname complicates things.

A. Documentary consistency concerns

The child may already have years of records under one surname.

B. Possession of status

Long use of the surname, together with treatment by the family and community, may become evidence relevant to filiation.

C. Best interests and stability

Even where biology points elsewhere, the law remains attentive to the child’s welfare and legal stability. Not every biological revelation automatically results in a surname change.

XXIV. The child’s own action to claim true filiation

The law gives special importance to the child’s right to establish filiation.

A. Why the child’s action matters

The action to claim filiation exists primarily to protect the child’s rights, not adult rivalries.

B. Evidence

The child may rely on the legally recognized modes of proof, including documentary acknowledgment, continuous possession of status, and in proper cases scientific evidence and corroborative testimony.

C. Prescription considerations

Actions to claim or prove filiation may be subject to specific rules depending on the kind of evidence relied upon and whether the child is still a minor or has reached majority. These rules are technical and can be outcome-determinative.

XXV. The interplay of paternity, legitimacy, and surname in common factual patterns

1. Child of a married woman; biological father outside the marriage wants recognition

This is the hardest case for the biological father. The child is presumed legitimate, the husband is presumed father, and only limited persons may impugn legitimacy within strict periods. The biological father generally cannot simply demand that the child bear his surname.

2. Child of an unmarried woman; wrong man listed without lawful basis

A judicial action to correct the registry and establish the true father’s filiation may be feasible. The key issue is proof and proper procedure.

3. Child of an unmarried woman; another man knowingly acknowledged the child

The acknowledgment has legal consequences. The biological father cannot merely override it informally. A serious judicial dispute over filiation may follow.

4. Child already using one surname for many years

Even if paternity is challenged, the court will consider the procedural and substantive consequences of changing the child’s name and civil records.

XXVI. Parental authority and visitation

Even if a man is the biological father, his rights to parental authority or visitation depend on legal filiation and the best interests of the child.

A. Illegitimate child context

Under the Family Code framework, parental authority over an illegitimate child is generally vested in the mother, though the father may still owe support and may in appropriate cases seek access or relief from the courts.

B. Establishing paternity is only part of the battle

A biological father who proves paternity does not automatically acquire the same immediate custodial position as a father in an intact legitimate family setting.

XXVII. The role of acknowledgment

Acknowledgment is central in illegitimate filiation.

To have legal effect, acknowledgment ordinarily must comply with the forms required by law. Casual statements, unsigned forms, or unsupported claims are often insufficient.

This has two major consequences:

a true biological father who never formally acknowledged the child may struggle to impose his surname or assert formal paternal rights; and
a falsely listed father who appears in a formal acknowledgment may be harder to displace than people expect.

The law values form because paternity carries enduring legal effects.

XXVIII. Can there be two legal fathers?

Ordinarily, no.

Philippine law does not generally contemplate a child having two simultaneous legal fathers for purposes of filiation. The law seeks one legally recognized paternal line for status purposes, though multiple men may have factual or litigated claims over the child.

This is why a case involving substitution of one father for another is legally serious: it is not an additive correction but a redefinition of filiation.

XXIX. Fraud, simulation, and bad-faith registration

Some disputes arise from deliberate false registration.

Examples include:

entering the name of a convenient man to avoid stigma,
using the name of a husband despite known non-paternity,
falsely inducing a man to sign acknowledgment,
or registering a father’s name without his consent.

These acts can produce civil, procedural, and sometimes criminal consequences depending on the facts, though the immediate family-law focus remains correction of status and protection of the child.

Fraud, however, must be proved; it is never presumed.

XXX. The importance of proper parties in court

A paternity or civil registry case can fail not because the facts are weak, but because the wrong action or wrong parties were used.

Potential indispensable or affected parties may include:

the child,
the mother,
the registered father,
the alleged biological father,
the civil registrar,
and in some situations heirs or representatives.

When a case seeks to alter filiation, due process for all concerned is indispensable.

XXXI. Why many “name correction” cases are actually filiation cases

Parties often frame the problem as merely changing the surname on the birth certificate. But if the surname derives from the identity of the father, then changing the surname often necessarily changes filiation.

Thus, what looks like a naming issue may really be a case about:

legitimacy,
acknowledgment,
paternity,
support,
inheritance,
and status.

Courts look past labels and analyze the real legal effect.

XXXII. Remedies commonly implicated

Depending on the facts, the legal remedies may include one or more of the following:

action to establish illegitimate filiation,
action or defense involving impugning legitimacy where the law allows it,
petition for correction or cancellation of entries in the civil registry,
support action,
custody or visitation proceedings,
and related actions involving inheritance or estate claims.

No single remedy fits all cases.

XXXIII. Practical evidentiary questions in litigation

In actual litigation, the court may examine:

the child’s certificate of live birth,
marriage records of the mother,
signatures and handwriting,
public documents of acknowledgment,
private handwritten admissions,
photographs, letters, electronic messages where admissible,
school and medical records,
proof of support,
community reputation and treatment,
DNA evidence,
and the timing of all relevant acts.

The chronology can be decisive. A man who openly treated the child as his own for years is in a very different evidentiary position from one who appears only after conflict arises.

XXXIV. Prescription and delay

Delay can be fatal in family-status litigation.

Different actions are governed by different prescriptive frameworks. Especially where legitimacy is involved, the law imposes strict periods and limits on who may sue. A party who sleeps on his rights may find that biology no longer translates into an enforceable legal remedy.

This is one reason why people often say “the truth will prevail” but lose in court: in family law, the truth must be pursued through the proper action, by the proper party, within the proper time.

XXXV. The child’s best interests and judicial caution

Philippine law generally disfavors unnecessary disruption of a child’s civil identity.

Even where adults are contesting paternity, courts remain sensitive to:

emotional harm,
stigma,
instability of records,
financial security,
and the need for a coherent legal status.

That does not mean truth is irrelevant. It means truth is processed through legal structures designed to protect the child.

XXXVI. Special caution on informal settlements

Families sometimes attempt informal solutions such as:

executing private affidavits,
changing school records without court orders,
using one surname socially and another legally,
or asking the local civil registrar to “just replace the father’s name.”

These shortcuts often create larger problems later in passports, inheritance, support, and court proceedings.

Where paternal identity in the civil register is at stake, informal arrangements are usually not enough.

XXXVII. Key legal propositions

Several propositions summarize the field:

Biological fatherhood and legal filiation are not always identical.
A child born to a married woman is strongly presumed to be the husband’s legitimate child.
Only specific persons may impugn legitimacy, and only within strict periods.
A birth certificate entry naming a father is important but may be challenged if legally defective, fraudulent, or unsupported.
Changing the father’s name in a birth certificate is usually a substantial correction requiring judicial proceedings.
An illegitimate child may use the father’s surname only if paternity is acknowledged or proved in the manner recognized by law.
A biological father cannot always force the child to bear his surname, especially where another legal filiation already exists.
The child’s rights and welfare are the law’s central concern.

XXXVIII. Practical legal analysis framework

Any serious legal opinion on this topic should answer these questions in order:

1. Was the mother married at conception or birth?

This determines whether the presumption of legitimacy applies.

2. What does the civil registry presently state?

Who is named as father, and on what documentary basis?

3. Was there a valid acknowledgment?

Was the registered father’s entry supported by a lawful signature or instrument?

4. What relief is actually sought?

Support, recognition, surname change, correction of the record, removal of the listed father, or assertion of inheritance rights?

5. Who has standing?

The child, the mother, the husband, the registered father, the alleged biological father, or heirs?

6. What evidence exists?

Documents, conduct, continuous possession of status, DNA, admissions, signatures.

7. Is judicial action required?

If status or filiation will change, almost certainly yes.

XXXIX. Conclusion

In the Philippines, a child registered under another man’s name cannot simply be reassigned to the biological father on the strength of DNA or private agreement alone. The law draws careful distinctions among biological paternity, legal filiation, legitimacy, acknowledgment, and civil registry status.

If the child was born to a married woman, the husband’s paternity is protected by the presumption of legitimacy, and a biological father’s claim is heavily restricted. If the child was born outside marriage and another man was improperly or falsely entered as father, the remedy may lie in a judicial action to correct the civil registry and establish true filiation. If another man validly acknowledged the child, displacing that status becomes much more difficult. In all settings, the child’s surname follows the child’s legally recognized filiation, not merely the biological preferences of adults.

The central lesson is this:

In Philippine law, the question is not only who the biological father is, but who the law recognizes as the father, by what evidence, through what procedure, and with what effect on the child’s status and welfare.

That is the true heart of the subject.

If you want this turned into a more formal law-journal style piece, I can rewrite it with section numbering, doctrinal framing, and footnote placeholders for statutes and cases.