(A legal article, Philippine context)

I. Constitutional Foundation and Structure

Judicial power is vested in one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be established by law (1987 Constitution, Art. VIII, Sec. 1). The Constitution defines judicial power as the authority:

to settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable; and
to determine whether there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the government (the so-called expanded judicial power).

A. The Supreme Court

Composition. A Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices, sitting en banc or in divisions as provided by the Court’s internal rules.
Tenure and qualifications. Justices must be natural-born citizens, at least 40 years old, with 15 years or more as a judge or in the practice of law, and serve until the age of 70 or until they resign, retire, or are removed by impeachment.
Fiscal autonomy and independence. The Judiciary enjoys fiscal autonomy; appropriations are automatically and regularly released. Judicial salaries may not be decreased during tenure.
Appointment. The President appoints from a list of nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council (JBC), an independent constitutional body created to depoliticize judicial appointments.

B. Lower Courts Created by Law

Court of Appeals (CA). Intermediate appellate court with regional stations; sits in divisions.
Sandiganbayan. Special graft court with jurisdiction over criminal and civil cases involving graft and corruption and other offenses committed by certain public officials.
Court of Tax Appeals (CTA). Special court with appellate (and in some cases original) jurisdiction over tax and customs cases.
Regional Trial Courts (RTCs). General jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters not otherwise within the jurisdiction of special courts.
First-level courts. Metropolitan/Municipal Trial Courts (MeTC/MTC/MCTC), Municipal Trial Courts in Cities (MTCC), and special first-level courts (e.g., Family Courts as designated).
Shari’a Courts. Shari’a District and Circuit Courts for Muslim personal laws in the BARMM and other areas as provided by statute.
Specialized trial courts and divisions. E.g., commercial/intellectual property courts, environmental courts, family courts, designated by Supreme Court administrative issuances.

II. Core Judicial Powers

A. Adjudicatory Power

Courts resolve justiciable disputes through final and executory judgments. This includes:

Original jurisdiction (e.g., the Supreme Court over cases affecting ambassadors and petitions for extraordinary writs against the CA, CTA, Sandiganbayan, and constitutional commissions; RTCs over most civil and criminal cases).
Appellate jurisdiction (review of judgments of lower courts and, via designated modes of appeal, decisions of quasi-judicial agencies).

B. Judicial Review and the “Grave Abuse” Clause

Constitutionality review. Courts may nullify statutes, executive acts, and administrative regulations that contravene the Constitution.
Political questions tempered. The expanded power authorizes courts to review acts of any branch or instrumentality for grave abuse of discretion, narrowing the traditional “political question” shield.
Effects. Unconstitutional acts are void; courts may issue injunctive relief and writs to restrain implementation.

C. Rule-Making Power (Art. VIII, Sec. 5[5])

The Supreme Court promulgates rules concerning:

Protection and enforcement of constitutional rights;
Pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts;
Admission to the Bar, the Integrated Bar of the Philippines (IBP), and legal aid for the underprivileged. These rules shall provide a simplified and inexpensive procedure; they shall not diminish, increase, or modify substantive rights.

D. Administrative Supervision Over the Judiciary (Art. VIII, Sec. 6)

The Supreme Court has administrative supervision over all courts and their personnel, including the powers to:

Appoint court officials and employees (as provided by law and Court issuances);
Discipline, suspend, or remove judges and judicial employees for cause;
Transfer venues, temporarily assign judges, and manage docket, caseloads, and court organization;
Oversee judicial education, performance management, and court technology.

E. Issuance of Prerogative and Protective Writs

Writ of Habeas Corpus (constitutional; to inquire into the legality of detention).
Writ of Amparo (rules-based; protects the rights to life, liberty, and security).
Writ of Habeas Data (rules-based; protects the right to privacy in relation to personal information held by public/private entities).
Writ of Kalikasan and Continuing Mandamus (rules-based; protect/enforce the right to a balanced and healthful ecology and ensure continuing compliance with environmental judgments).
Writs of Certiorari, Prohibition, Mandamus, Quo Warranto, and Injunction (to correct jurisdictional errors, compel performance of duties, test title to office, and restrain unlawful acts).

F. Contempt Powers

Courts may punish direct and indirect contempt to preserve the authority, dignity, and orderly administration of justice, subject to statutory and rules-based limits and due process.

III. Jurisdictional Architecture (Overview)

A. Supreme Court

Original jurisdiction: Cases affecting ambassadors, public ministers, and consuls; petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto, and habeas corpus against the CA, CTA, Sandiganbayan, COMELEC, COA, and other constitutional bodies; electoral contests for national elective officials when vested by law (e.g., presidential/vice-presidential election contests are with the Presidential Electoral Tribunal, which the SC constitutes).
Appellate jurisdiction: Questions of law via petitions for review on certiorari; automatic review in certain criminal cases (e.g., penalties of reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment as provided by rules/statutes).
No advisory opinions. The Court decides only actual cases and controversies.

B. Court of Appeals

Appellate: From RTCs and quasi-judicial agencies through designated modes (e.g., Rules 41–43, 45).
Original: Writs (certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, habeas corpus, quo warranto) against RTCs and some quasi-judicial bodies; annulment of RTC judgments.

C. Sandiganbayan

Original and appellate jurisdiction over cases involving graft, corruption, plunder, ill-gotten wealth, and other offenses by public officials within its coverage as defined by statute.

D. Court of Tax Appeals

Exclusive appellate (and in some instances original) jurisdiction over tax and customs assessments, refunds, penalties, and decisions of the CIR, Customs Commissioner, and certain agencies.

E. Regional Trial Courts

General jurisdiction over civil, criminal, and special proceedings not exclusively vested in other courts; also act as appellate courts over first-level courts.

F. First-Level Courts

Handle lesser civil and criminal cases, ordinances, and special proceedings as allocated by law; may issue writs within their competence.

G. Shari’a Courts

Jurisdiction over personal, family, and property relations of Muslims as defined by special laws (e.g., marriage, divorce, inheritance under Muslim personal law).

IV. Standards and Limitations on Judicial Power

A. Justiciability Doctrines

Actual case or controversy and ripeness;
Standing (locus standi)—with recognized relaxations for transcendental issues;
Mootness—with established exceptions (capable of repetition yet evading review, compelling public interest, voluntary cessation, etc.);
Hierarchy of courts and doctrine of primary jurisdiction;
Proscription of advisory opinions and political questions, except when grave abuse is alleged.

B. Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances

Review of martial law/suspension of habeas corpus. Any citizen may challenge the sufficiency of factual basis; the Supreme Court must decide within a constitutionally fixed period.
Review of electoral processes where vested by law (e.g., PET for presidential contests; HRET/SET for congressional and senatorial contests—judicial review may lie for grave abuse).
Impeachment. Members of the Supreme Court are impeachable officers; courts do not try impeachment but may address justiciable questions arising from impeachment proceedings under the grave-abuse standard.

C. Due Process and Fair Trial Guarantees

Courts ensure observance of substantive and procedural due process, the rights of the accused, rules on evidence (including the Rules on Electronic Evidence), bail, arraignment and pre-trial, trial safeguards, and post-conviction remedies.

D. Stare Decisis and the Binding Force of Judgments

Supreme Court decisions form part of the law of the land and bind all courts; lower courts adhere under the doctrine of precedent and law of the case.
Finality of judgments and immutability rule admit narrow exceptions (e.g., to correct clerical errors, nunc pro tunc entries, or void judgments).

V. Quasi-Judicial Agencies and Judicial Oversight

Numerous administrative bodies exercise quasi-judicial powers (e.g., labor, competition, energy, telecommunications, procurement). Their decisions are reviewable by courts—typically by the CA via Rule 43 or by special statutes—on questions of law, jurisdiction, and due process, with substantial evidence as the usual yardstick for factual findings.

VI. Instruments for Access to Justice

A. Legal Aid and Pro Bono

Under its rule-making power, the Supreme Court institutionalizes legal assistance for the underprivileged, supports the Public Attorney’s Office (PAO) framework within court processes, and oversees IBP legal aid programs.

B. Court-Annexed Mediation and Judicial Dispute Resolution

Courts implement Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) through court-annexed mediation (CAM) and judicial dispute resolution (JDR) to decongest dockets and promote consensual outcomes, subject to confidentiality and enforceability rules.

C. Small Claims and Special Procedural Tracks

Small Claims procedures, Rules on Summary Procedure, family court protocols, and special commercial and environmental rules streamline litigation, reduce cost, and expand access.

VII. Administrative and Governance Functions of the Judiciary

A. Discipline and Ethics

Judicial discipline. The Supreme Court investigates and sanctions judges and employees for conduct unbecoming, inefficiency, or corruption, safeguarding judicial integrity.
Legal profession regulation. Through the Office of the Bar Confidant and disciplinary bodies, the Court admits and sanctions lawyers, enforces the Code of Professional Responsibility and Accountability, and oversees the IBP.

B. Docket Management and Caseflow Reforms

The Court issues administrative circulars on time standards, continuous trial, e-courts, video conferencing, and other case management innovations, consistent with due process and open courts policies.

C. Technology and Transparency

E-filing, e-payment, and remote hearings under rules promulgated by the Court;
Publication of decisions, availability of rules and circulars, and access to judgments subject to privacy constraints;
Judicial audits and performance indicators to monitor efficiency.

VIII. The Judicial and Bar Council (JBC)

A. Purpose and Powers

Screens applicants and submits a shortlist to the President for appointments to the Supreme Court and other courts.
Adopts transparent selection standards (integrity, competence, independence, and probity), receives public complaints, and conducts background checks.

B. Institutional Features

Ex officio members include the Chief Justice (Chair), the Secretary of Justice, and a representative from Congress; regular members represent the IBP, academe, retired judiciary, and private sector.
Security of tenure and rules of procedure promote independence from partisan influence.

IX. Special Constitutional Roles

A. Election-Related Functions

The Supreme Court constitutes the Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET) to decide contests for President and Vice-President.
Courts may enforce election laws (e.g., criminal violations) and review actions of COMELEC for grave abuse of discretion.

B. Martial Law Review (Art. VII, Sec. 18)

Upon petition by any citizen, the Supreme Court reviews the sufficiency of factual basis for martial law or suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus and must decide within a constitutionally set period.
Judicial review operates alongside congressional powers to revoke or extend.

X. Remedies, Execution, and Post-Judgment

Ordinary remedies: Motions for reconsideration/new trial, appeals.
Extraordinary remedies: Certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto, habeas corpus, amparo, habeas data, kalikasan, and contempt.
Execution of judgments: Writs of execution, garnishment, levy, and special civil actions to enforce or restrain execution.
Judgments abroad and arbitration: Recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments and arbitral awards under the Rules of Court, the ADR Law, and special rules.

XI. Accountability of the Judiciary

Impeachment of Supreme Court Members for constitutional grounds (culpable violation of the Constitution, treason, bribery, graft and corruption, other high crimes, or betrayal of public trust).
Administrative liability of lower court judges and personnel via the Supreme Court’s disciplinary authority.
Statement of Assets, Liabilities, and Net Worth (SALN) filing and other transparency mechanisms as required by law and Court rules.
Criminal and civil liability where appropriate, subject to immunities and doctrines like judicial immunity for acts done in a judicial capacity within jurisdiction.

XII. Guiding Doctrines and Policy Considerations

Judicial restraint and modesty vs. the obligation to correct grave abuse of discretion;
Hierarchy of courts and doctrine of finality to preserve order in the judicial system;
Access to justice as a core policy—simplification of rules, cost reduction, and support for marginalized litigants;
Environmental stewardship through specialized writs and continuing mandamus;
Digital transformation balanced with open courts and transparency.

XIII. Conclusion

The Philippine Judiciary is a constitutionally independent branch endowed with adjudicatory power, robust judicial review (including the expanded grave abuse clause), and comprehensive administrative and rule-making authority. It serves as the guardian of the Constitution, the arbiter of legal controversies, and the steward of the legal profession—tasked not only with resolving cases, but also with protecting rights, ensuring fair process, upholding the rule of law, and maintaining effective, accessible courts for all.