When a minor is involved in cyberbullying in the Philippines, the legal consequences depend on three things: the child’s age, what exactly was posted or sent online, and whether the act stayed within school discipline or crossed into a criminal offense such as cyber libel, threats, identity theft, online sexual harassment, or sharing private sexual images. Philippine law does not usually treat children like adult offenders. Schools can impose disciplinary and corrective measures, but criminal liability for minors is governed by the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act, which prioritizes intervention, diversion, rehabilitation, and restorative justice over imprisonment.
Quick Answer: What Penalties Can a Minor Face for Cyberbullying?
A minor involved in cyberbullying may face:
| Situation | Possible consequence |
|---|---|
| Cyberbullying between students in elementary or high school | School discipline, counseling, intervention program, community service, suspension, exclusion, or expulsion, depending on gravity and due process |
| Child is 15 years old or younger | No criminal liability, but the child must undergo an intervention program; civil liability may still arise |
| Child is above 15 but below 18 and acted without discernment | No criminal liability, but intervention applies |
| Child is above 15 but below 18 and acted with discernment | Possible criminal case, but handled under juvenile justice rules, with diversion where available |
| Cyberbullying caused actual damage | Possible civil claim for damages against the child, parents, guardians, or in some cases the school |
| Cyberbullying involved defamatory posts, threats, fake accounts, hacking, sexual images, or sexual harassment | Possible charges under the Revised Penal Code, Cybercrime Prevention Act, Safe Spaces Act, Anti-Photo and Video Voyeurism Act, Anti-OSAEC law, or other special laws |
The most important point is this: there is no single “cyberbullying penalty” that automatically sends a minor to jail. Philippine law separates ordinary school bullying from acts that are serious enough to become criminal or civil cases.
What Counts as Cyberbullying in the Philippines?
The Anti-Bullying Act of 2013, Republic Act No. 10627, expressly includes cyber-bullying, meaning bullying done through technology or electronic means. It covers acts that cause physical, emotional, psychological, or social harm, including written, verbal, electronic, or online acts that create a hostile environment for the victim. The law requires elementary and secondary schools to adopt anti-bullying policies and procedures. (Lawphil)
In real life, cyberbullying usually appears as:
- Posting humiliating photos, memes, edited images, or videos of a classmate
- Sending threats through Messenger, Instagram, TikTok, Discord, Telegram, text, or email
- Creating fake accounts to shame, impersonate, or harass another child
- Spreading rumors about a student’s sexuality, family, body, grades, poverty, nationality, religion, or disability
- Excluding a student from online group chats while encouraging others to insult them
- Repeatedly tagging or mentioning the victim in abusive posts
- Sharing screenshots of private chats to humiliate someone
- Posting false accusations such as “magnanakaw,” “pokpok,” “scammer,” “cheater,” or “drug user”
- Threatening to leak private or intimate photos
Not every rude or immature online comment becomes a criminal case. But repeated online harassment, public shaming, threats, sexualized content, or fake-account attacks can create serious legal exposure, especially when the victim is also a child.
Legal Basis: The Main Philippine Laws That Apply
Republic Act No. 10627: Anti-Bullying Act of 2013
RA 10627 is the first law parents usually encounter when the cyberbullying happened in a school setting. It applies to public and private kindergarten, elementary, and secondary schools and learning centers. Its focus is school prevention, reporting, intervention, discipline, and documentation—not automatic criminal punishment. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Under DepEd Order No. 55, s. 2013, the Implementing Rules and Regulations of RA 10627, schools must have procedures for immediate response, reporting, fact-finding, intervention, referral, disciplinary measures, and confidentiality. The school must separately interview the victim and the alleged bully, determine the level of threat, notify parents, document the incident, and recommend interventions through the Child Protection Committee. If the threat is high or requires immediate attention, the school must act within 24 hours from the incident. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Possible school penalties include:
- Written reprimand
- Community service
- Suspension
- Exclusion
- Expulsion
- Counseling or intervention program
- Parent participation in intervention activities
- Referral to outside professionals such as psychologists, social workers, or child protection specialists
The school must still observe due process. The student and parents must be informed of the complaint in writing, the student must be allowed to answer with parental assistance, the decision must be in writing, and the decision may be appealed to the Division Office for DepEd schools. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Republic Act No. 9344, as Amended by RA 10630: Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act
If the cyberbullying act may be a crime, the minor is handled under the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act. This law uses the term child in conflict with the law, or CICL, for a child alleged, accused, or adjudged to have committed an offense.
The age rules are crucial:
| Age of child at the time of the act | Criminal liability |
|---|---|
| 15 years old or below | Exempt from criminal liability, but subject to intervention |
| Above 15 but below 18, without discernment | Exempt from criminal liability, but subject to intervention |
| Above 15 but below 18, with discernment | May be criminally liable, but handled under juvenile justice procedures |
| 18 or older | Regular criminal rules apply |
RA 10630 states that a child 15 years old or under is exempt from criminal liability but must undergo intervention. A child above 15 but below 18 is also exempt unless the child acted with discernment. The same provision clarifies that exemption from criminal liability does not remove civil liability. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Discernment means the child understood the wrongfulness and consequences of the act. In practice, this is assessed from the child’s age, maturity, statements, planning, concealment, repetition, motive, and circumstances. For example, a one-time impulsive insult is different from weeks of coordinated fake-account harassment, instructions to classmates to hide evidence, or threats to release private images unless the victim obeys.
Republic Act No. 10175: Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012
RA 10175 becomes relevant when cyberbullying involves conduct punished as a cybercrime, such as computer-related identity theft, illegal access, computer-related fraud, cybersex, spam, or online libel. Its penalties for computer-related offenses may include prision mayor or fines beginning at ₱200,000, depending on the specific offense and damage caused. (Supreme Court E-Library)
For cyberbullying cases, the most common RA 10175 issue is cyber libel. Cyber libel is libel committed through a computer system, such as a social media post, online comment, blog post, or public chat message. The Supreme Court in Disini v. Secretary of Justice upheld cyber libel only insofar as it penalizes the author of the libelous statement or article—not people who merely receive or react to the post. (Lawphil)
The Supreme Court later clarified in Causing v. People that cyber libel under RA 10175 does not create a completely new crime; it enforces libel under Articles 353 and 355 of the Revised Penal Code when committed through ICT, with a higher penalty. The Court has also held that cyber libel prescribes in one year from discovery by the offended party, authorities, or their agents. (Supreme Court E-Library)
For minors, however, the adult penalty is not applied mechanically. If the alleged offender is below 18, RA 9344 and RA 10630 still control how the case is processed.
Republic Act No. 11313: Safe Spaces Act
Cyberbullying may also become gender-based online sexual harassment under RA 11313, the Safe Spaces Act, if the posts or messages involve misogynistic, sexist, homophobic, transphobic, or sexual remarks, cyberstalking, incessant messaging, impersonation, uploading sexual content, or online threats that cause mental, emotional, or psychological distress. (Supreme Court E-Library)
The Safe Spaces Act imposes for gender-based online sexual harassment the penalty of prision correccional in its medium period, or a fine of ₱100,000 to ₱500,000, or both, at the court’s discretion. If the offender is a minor, the juvenile justice rules on intervention and diversion still apply. (Lawphil)
Republic Act No. 9995: Anti-Photo and Video Voyeurism Act
If the cyberbullying involves private sexual photos or videos, RA 9995 may apply. This law prohibits taking, copying, distributing, publishing, broadcasting, showing, or exhibiting sexual photos or videos or images of private body parts without consent, including through the internet or mobile phones. Importantly, even if consent was given to record the material, consent to share it is a separate issue. The penalty is imprisonment of three to seven years and a fine of ₱100,000 to ₱500,000, or both. (Lawphil)
If the person in the image is a child, the case may become more serious under RA 11930.
Republic Act No. 11930: Anti-OSAEC and Anti-CSAEM Act
When cyberbullying involves sexual images, sexual extortion, grooming, live-streaming, possession, production, or distribution of child sexual abuse or exploitation material, RA 11930 may apply. This is far more serious than ordinary school cyberbullying. RA 11930 punishes online sexual abuse or exploitation of children and child sexual abuse or exploitation materials, with penalties that can include reclusion temporal, reclusion perpetua, life imprisonment, and very large fines depending on the prohibited act. (Lawphil)
A common example is a teenager threatening to leak another minor’s intimate image unless the victim sends more photos, stays in a relationship, or does something humiliating. Even if both children are minors, the situation must be handled carefully because the law protects the child victim, while the alleged minor offender is still processed under juvenile justice rules.
Civil Code and Family Code: Civil Liability for Damages
Cyberbullying may also lead to civil liability, meaning payment for damages. The Civil Code provides that a person who willfully or negligently causes damage must indemnify the injured person, and that willful acts contrary to morals, good customs, or public policy may give rise to compensation. It also protects dignity, privacy, and peace of mind, including acts that humiliate another person based on personal conditions. (Lawphil)
Moral damages may be recovered in cases involving libel, slander, defamation, and acts covered by Articles 21 and 26 of the Civil Code. Moral damages include mental anguish, serious anxiety, besmirched reputation, wounded feelings, moral shock, and social humiliation. (Lawphil)
Parents and guardians may also be civilly liable. The Civil Code makes parents responsible for damages caused by minor children living in their company, unless they prove they exercised the diligence of a good father of a family. The Family Code also states that parents and persons exercising parental authority are civilly liable for injuries and damages caused by unemancipated children living with them and under their parental authority, subject to legal defenses. (Lawphil)
Schools may also have exposure in some cases. Under the Family Code, schools, administrators, and teachers have special parental authority over minor children while under their supervision, instruction, or custody, and may be principally and solidarily liable for damages caused by acts or omissions of unemancipated minors under their supervision, unless proper diligence is proven. (Lawphil)
Penalties by Type of Cyberbullying Conduct
| Cyberbullying conduct | Possible legal basis | Possible consequence for a minor |
|---|---|---|
| Insults, name-calling, humiliating posts between students | RA 10627 and school policy | School discipline, counseling, intervention, community service, suspension, exclusion, or expulsion |
| Repeated online harassment causing emotional distress | RA 10627; Civil Code; possibly RPC or special laws | School action, intervention, possible civil damages, possible criminal referral depending on facts |
| False public accusation damaging reputation | Cyber libel under RA 10175 and RPC Articles 353/355 | If above 15 and with discernment, possible juvenile criminal proceedings; otherwise intervention |
| Fake account using another student’s identity | RA 10175 computer-related identity theft; Civil Code | Possible juvenile proceedings, diversion, civil liability, school discipline |
| Threats to hurt, expose, or ruin someone | Revised Penal Code; RA 10175 if online means used | Possible police/prosecutor involvement and juvenile justice handling |
| Sexualized insults, misogynistic or homophobic attacks, cyberstalking | RA 11313 Safe Spaces Act | Possible juvenile proceedings, diversion, gender sensitivity intervention, school discipline |
| Sharing private intimate images | RA 9995; possibly RA 11930 if child sexual material is involved | Serious police/prosecutor handling; juvenile justice applies to minor offender |
| Sexual extortion involving a child | RA 11930; possibly RA 10175 and RPC | Serious child protection and criminal process, with juvenile justice rules for minor offender |
What Happens in School After a Cyberbullying Complaint?
For school-related cyberbullying, the process usually begins with the adviser, guidance office, school head, Child Protection Committee, or designated child protection officer.
Step 1: Immediate safety action
The school should stop the bullying, separate the students if needed, address immediate safety needs, provide medical attention if necessary, and bring the alleged bully to the guidance office or designated personnel. DepEd’s anti-bullying rules require immediate intervention once school personnel are informed. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Step 2: Reporting and intake sheet
The victim, parent, bystander, teacher, or any person with personal knowledge may report the incident. The school should inform the school head, fill out the intake sheet, and notify the parents or guardians of both the victim and the alleged bully. Anonymous reports may be entertained, but discipline cannot be based solely on an anonymous report without other evidence. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Step 3: Fact-finding
The school should interview the victim and alleged bully separately and privately, evaluate threat level, preserve documentation, and recommend protective measures. If the matter is urgent or high-risk, action should be taken within 24 hours. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Step 4: Intervention
The Child Protection Committee determines appropriate interventions for the victim, alleged bully, and bystanders. These may include counseling, life skills training, restorative conferences, psychological assessment, behavior contracts, or referral to trained professionals. DepEd’s rules emphasize formative and corrective measures rather than punishment alone. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Step 5: Discipline with due process
If discipline is imposed, the school must provide written notice, allow the student to answer with parental assistance, issue a written decision stating facts and reasons, and allow appeal where applicable. Possible sanctions include written reprimand, community service, suspension, exclusion, or expulsion, depending on severity and school rules. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Step 6: Referral to authorities when needed
If the cyberbullying may involve a criminal offense, the school head or Child Protection Committee may notify the PNP Women and Children’s Protection Desk or other appropriate authorities. DepEd rules also state that bullying complaints under the IRR are within the jurisdiction of DepEd or the private school and should not be brought for amicable barangay settlement, although acts covered by other laws must be referred to proper authorities. (Supreme Court E-Library)
What Happens If a Criminal Complaint Is Filed Against a Minor?
A cyberbullying case becomes a possible criminal matter when the conduct fits a crime, such as cyber libel, threats, unjust vexation, identity theft, online sexual harassment, photo/video voyeurism, or child sexual exploitation.
1. Authorities determine age
The child’s age at the time of the alleged act is critical. A birth certificate is the best proof. If there is doubt about age, juvenile justice rules generally favor minority until proven otherwise. (Supreme Court E-Library)
2. Discernment is assessed
For children above 15 but below 18, authorities must determine whether the child acted with discernment. A child who did not understand the wrongfulness of the act should undergo intervention, not criminal prosecution.
3. The Local Social Welfare and Development Office becomes involved
The LSWDO plays a key role in intervention, diversion, assessment, and coordination with the child, parents, victim, barangay, police, prosecutor, and court.
4. Diversion may be considered
Diversion is a child-appropriate process that avoids full formal court trial where the law allows it. It may involve apology, restitution, counseling, education, community service, digital responsibility training, family conferencing, or agreements to stop contact and remove harmful posts.
For offenses with an imposable penalty of six years or below, diversion may happen at the barangay, police, LSWDO, or prosecutor level. For offenses with an imposable penalty of 12 years or below, court diversion may be available. If diversion fails, the case may proceed to trial. (Juvenile Justice and Welfare Council)
5. Detention is a last resort
The Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act recognizes that detention or imprisonment of a child must be a last resort and for the shortest appropriate period. A child deprived of liberty must be separated from adult offenders, and the child has rights to privacy, legal assistance, bail or recognizance where appropriate, diversion if qualified, automatic suspension of sentence, and probation if qualified. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Documents and Evidence Parents Should Prepare
Good documentation often determines whether a complaint moves quickly or stalls.
| Document or evidence | Why it matters |
|---|---|
| Screenshots showing full post, account name, date, time, URL, comments, shares, and reactions | Shows what was posted and who saw it |
| Screen recording of the account or chat thread | Helps prove the content existed before deletion |
| Links to profiles, posts, pages, groups, or videos | Helps cybercrime investigators trace the source |
| Names of witnesses or classmates who saw the posts | Supports publication, impact, and school fact-finding |
| Medical, psychological, or counseling records | Shows emotional or physical impact |
| School incident reports and intake sheets | Proves that the school was notified |
| Written communications with school officials | Shows whether the school acted promptly |
| Affidavit of the parent, victim, or witnesses | Needed for police, NBI, prosecutor, or civil proceedings |
| Birth certificate of the victim and alleged offender, if available | Establishes minority and applicable procedure |
| Notarized statements, where needed | Helps formalize affidavits for filing |
Do not rely only on screenshots cropped to show the insult. Preserve context. Save the full conversation, the visible URL, account handle, profile link, date, time, and any replies. If the post is still live, document it before reporting it to the platform because it may be deleted.
Where to Report Cyberbullying Involving Minors
| Where to go | When appropriate | Practical notes |
|---|---|---|
| School adviser, guidance office, principal, or Child Protection Committee | Student-on-student cyberbullying connected to school | Usually first step for RA 10627 cases |
| DepEd Schools Division Office | Public school ignores complaint or violates procedure | Bring written complaint, proof of school notice, evidence |
| Private school administration or regional DepEd office | Private school case not properly acted on | Private schools must still comply with anti-bullying policy rules |
| Barangay Council for the Protection of Children | Community-based intervention and child welfare support | Not the venue for amicable settlement of school bullying under DepEd IRR, but may assist child protection concerns |
| PNP Women and Children Protection Desk | Child victim, threats, abuse, sexual harassment, exploitation | Useful when immediate protection is needed |
| PNP Anti-Cybercrime Group | Cybercrime elements such as fake accounts, identity theft, cyber libel, online threats | PNP ACG handles cyber-related offenses |
| NBI Cybercrime Division | Serious cybercrime evidence, anonymous accounts, digital tracing | NBI lists investigative assistance for victims of computer crimes through its Cybercrime Division. (National Bureau of Investigation) |
| City or Provincial Prosecutor | Formal criminal complaint | Requires affidavits and supporting evidence |
| Family Court or Regional Trial Court | When the case reaches court | Child-sensitive juvenile justice procedures apply |
The DOJ Office of Cybercrime is the central authority on cybercrime matters under RA 10175, particularly for coordination and international cybercrime concerns. (Department of Justice Philippines)
Common Real-Life Scenarios
A 13-year-old made a meme humiliating a classmate
The child is 15 or below, so there is no criminal liability. But the school may impose discipline after due process, and the child may undergo intervention. Parents may still face civil liability if actual damage is proven.
A 16-year-old created a fake account to call a classmate a thief
This may involve school cyberbullying, cyber libel, and possibly identity-related cybercrime if another person’s identity was used. Because the child is above 15 but below 18, the key questions are discernment and whether diversion is available.
A 17-year-old threatened to leak a private photo
This is no longer “just bullying.” It may involve threats, gender-based online sexual harassment, photo/video voyeurism, or child sexual exploitation laws, depending on the image and circumstances. Police, cybercrime authorities, and child protection personnel may need to be involved immediately.
A group chat repeatedly mocks a foreign student’s nationality or accent
The school can treat this as bullying or cyberbullying if it harms the student’s emotional well-being or creates a hostile environment. If the conduct includes racial, sexual, or identity-based attacks, other civil or criminal issues may arise depending on the words used and harm caused.
A student only liked or shared a bad post
For cyber libel, Disini v. Secretary of Justice is important because the Supreme Court limited liability to the author of the libelous statement or article, not mere recipients or reactors. But a student who adds a new defamatory caption, threat, or insult may create separate liability for their own words. (Lawphil)
Practical Timelines and Bottlenecks
| Step | Typical timing | Common bottlenecks |
|---|---|---|
| Evidence gathering | Same day to a few days | Posts deleted, fake accounts changed, missing URLs |
| School intake and immediate action | Same day; within 24 hours for high-risk cases | School treats it as “away from campus” even if it affects students |
| School fact-finding | Several days to a few weeks | Exams, parent availability, incomplete screenshots |
| Intervention or discipline | After school evaluation and due process | Disagreement over sanction, appeal to Division Office |
| Police/NBI cybercrime complaint | Same day to several weeks depending on evidence | Anonymous accounts, platform data delays, need for sworn statements |
| Prosecutor evaluation | Weeks to months | Need for additional affidavits, counter-affidavits, digital evidence |
| Court proceedings involving minors | Months or longer | Diversion assessment, social case study, court calendar |
The biggest practical mistake is waiting too long. Cyber libel has a one-year prescriptive period from discovery, and some online evidence disappears quickly. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Foreigners, OFWs, and Cross-Border Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying often crosses borders. A Filipino student may be abroad, the victim may be a foreigner studying in the Philippines, or the harmful post may be hosted on an overseas platform.
RA 10175 gives Philippine courts jurisdiction where any element of the offense was committed in the Philippines, where a computer system wholly or partly located in the Philippines was used, or where damage was caused to a person who was in the Philippines at the time of the offense. (Lawphil)
For overseas Filipinos or foreigners abroad, practical steps may include:
- Preserve evidence with timestamps and URLs.
- Prepare sworn statements.
- If documents are executed abroad, they may need notarization before a Philippine embassy or consulate, or apostille if executed in a country that is part of the Apostille Convention.
- Coordinate with the school in the Philippines if the offender or victim is enrolled there.
- For serious cybercrime, contact DOJ Office of Cybercrime, NBI Cybercrime Division, or PNP ACG for guidance on cross-border evidence issues.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can a minor go to jail for cyberbullying in the Philippines?
A minor does not automatically go to jail for cyberbullying. A child 15 or below is exempt from criminal liability and undergoes intervention. A child above 15 but below 18 may be criminally liable only if they acted with discernment, and even then, juvenile justice rules prioritize diversion, rehabilitation, and detention as a last resort. (Supreme Court E-Library)
What is the penalty for cyberbullying under the Anti-Bullying Act?
RA 10627 does not impose a fixed jail penalty on student bullies. It requires schools to adopt anti-bullying policies and impose appropriate disciplinary and corrective measures. Depending on the school’s rules and the severity of the act, penalties may include reprimand, community service, suspension, exclusion, expulsion, counseling, and intervention. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Is cyberbullying a criminal offense in the Philippines?
Cyberbullying itself is mainly addressed through school policies under RA 10627. But specific cyberbullying acts can become criminal offenses if they fit laws on cyber libel, threats, identity theft, online sexual harassment, voyeurism, child sexual exploitation, or other crimes.
What if the cyberbully is only 14 years old?
A 14-year-old is exempt from criminal liability under RA 9344 as amended by RA 10630. The child may still face school discipline, intervention, counseling, and civil consequences. Parents may also face civil liability depending on the facts. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Can parents be sued for a child’s cyberbullying?
Yes, in proper cases. The Civil Code and Family Code allow civil liability against parents or persons exercising parental authority for damages caused by minor or unemancipated children living with them, subject to legal defenses. (Lawphil)
Can the school be liable if it ignores cyberbullying?
Possibly. Schools have duties under RA 10627 and DepEd rules to prevent and address bullying. The Family Code also gives schools special parental authority over minors under their supervision, with possible civil liability for damages caused by acts or omissions of unemancipated minors while under school supervision, unless proper diligence is shown. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Should cyberbullying be reported to the barangay?
For school bullying under DepEd’s Anti-Bullying IRR, complaints are within the jurisdiction of DepEd or the private school and should not be brought for amicable barangay settlement. However, barangay child protection mechanisms may still help with intervention, safety, and referral, and acts covered by other laws should be referred to proper authorities. (Supreme Court E-Library)
Can a victim file a cyber libel case against a minor?
A complaint may be filed if the facts satisfy cyber libel, but the minor’s age and discernment determine how the case proceeds. A child 15 or below is exempt from criminal liability. A child above 15 but below 18 must be assessed for discernment and handled under juvenile justice rules. Cyber libel prescribes in one year from discovery. (Supreme Court E-Library)
What if the cyberbullying involves private sexual photos?
This is a serious matter. RA 9995 may apply to non-consensual recording, copying, distribution, or publication of sexual photos or videos. If the person depicted is a child, RA 11930 on OSAEC and CSAEM may apply, with much heavier penalties. (Lawphil)
Can the victim demand that the post be deleted?
Yes, the victim or parent can ask the school, platform, poster, or authorities to remove harmful content. However, evidence should be preserved first. Take full screenshots, screen recordings, URLs, timestamps, and profile details before reporting or requesting takedown.
Key Takeaways
- Minors are not treated like adult offenders. A child 15 or below has no criminal liability; a child above 15 but below 18 is criminally liable only if they acted with discernment.
- School penalties are often the first consequence. These may include reprimand, counseling, intervention, community service, suspension, exclusion, or expulsion, but due process is required.
- Cyberbullying can become criminal when it involves specific crimes. Examples include cyber libel, threats, fake accounts, online sexual harassment, voyeurism, or child sexual exploitation.
- Civil liability can still exist even when the child is exempt from criminal liability. Parents, guardians, and sometimes schools may face damages claims depending on supervision and fault.
- Evidence must be preserved quickly. Save screenshots, URLs, timestamps, account details, messages, witnesses, and school reports before content is deleted.
- For serious cases involving threats, sexual images, stalking, or fake accounts, school reporting may not be enough. PNP, NBI, prosecutors, social welfare officers, and child protection authorities may need to be involved.